bitter
concept / concept-word-bitter-en
bitter（英語） / bitter (English)
Bitter is an English adjective and noun. Besides one of the basic tastes, it is used figuratively for mental displeasure and severe pain or grief.
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Reading the bitterness
According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary, bitterness is a basic taste; it defines the taste sense of the English adjective and noun bitter as 『being, inducing, or marked by the one of the five basic taste sensations that is peculiarly acrid, astringent, and often disagreeable and characteristic of citrus peels, unsweetened cocoa, black coffee, mature leafy greens (such as kale or mustard), or ale』.
The same dictionary gives figurative uses of bitter: sense 1b, 『distasteful or distressing to the mind : GALLING』, for mental displeasure or distress; and sense 3, 『caused by or expressive of severe pain, grief, or regret』, for severe pain, grief, or regret.
Merriam-Webster traces the word through Middle English to Old English biter and derives it from reconstructed Proto-Germanic *bitra- and *baitra-, linked to 『to bite』. The etymology site Etymonline describes Old English biter as 『having a harsh taste, sharp, cutting; angry, full of animosity; cruel』. It describes a prehistoric shift from 「噛みつく」 (in translation: "biting") to 「刺激的な味、酸味・辛味のある」 (in translation: "a pungent, acrid taste"), and says Old English already used the word figuratively for mental states and speech.
Sources for this overview
Bitter — Merriam-Webster Dictionary
Checked for this overview: Presented the dictionary’s taste definition as one of the five basic tastes. / Presented figurative senses of mental displeasure and grief. / Presented the derivation traced back to Proto-Germanic.
Bitter — Etymology, Origin & Meaning (etymonline)
Checked for this overview: Supplemented the semantic shift from biting to taste.
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Scope: Merriam-Webster Dictionary online, headword bitter, adjective sense 1a
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concept-word-bitter-en —is_defined_in_dictionary_as→ ""being, inducing, or marked by the one of the five basic taste sensations that is peculiarly acrid, astringent, and often disagreeable and characteristic of citrus peels, unsweetened cocoa, black coffee, mature leafy greens (such as kale or mustard), or ale""Scope: Merriam-Webster Dictionary online, headword bitter, adjective senses 1b and 3
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concept-word-bitter-en —is_presented_as→ ""distasteful or distressing to the mind : GALLING" (sense 1b) and "caused by or expressive of severe pain, grief, or regret" (sense 3)"Scope: Merriam-Webster Dictionary online, headword bitter, Word History / Etymology (adjective)
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concept-word-bitter-en —has_name_etymology→ "Middle English, going back to Old English biter, going back to Germanic *bitra- (whence Old Saxon & Old High German bittar "acrid-tasting," Old Norse bitr "biting, sharp") and *baitra- (whence Gothic baitrs "sharp-tasting"), derivatives from the base of *bītan- "to bite""Scope: Etymonline.com’s description under the headword bitter (adjective).
Note: This is a statement by the etymology site Etymonline and is treated as such. It is kept distinct from Merriam-Webster’s separate etymological account.
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concept-word-bitter-en —has_name_etymology→ "『Old English biter "having a harsh taste, sharp, cutting; angry, full of animosity; cruel," from Proto-Germanic *bitras-...If so, the meaning drifted in prehistoric times from "biting," to "of pungent taste, acrid-tasting." It also was used figuratively in Old English of states of mind and words.』. The Japanese explanatory note describes Old English biter as 「荒々しい味、鋭い、切るような、怒った、敵意に満ちた、残酷な」 (in translation: "harsh-tasting, sharp, cutting, angry, hostile, or cruel"); it describes a possible prehistoric shift from 「噛みつく」 (in translation: "biting") to 「刺激的な味、酸味・辛味のある」 (in translation: "pungent and acrid tasting"), while noting figurative Old English uses for mental states and words."